Reflection EDUC 6711I

Orey outlines that “understanding the theoretical base supporting teaching and learning can help [educators] make appropriate and successful instructional decisions for [their] students” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008c).  Instructional theories examine strategies for changing the learning environment to facilitate learning and although they all have “different perspectives about engaging learners” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008c) their commonalities necessitate active learners and participants.

Personal Learning Theory

Wolfe argues that teachers “are not just teaching children, [they] are literally and physically shaping their brains by what [they] have them do (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008b).  During the learning process, the brain seeks meaningful patterns; therefore, the only way to really understand something is to relate it to prior knowledge or creating hands-on, concrete learning experiences that involve the five senses.  “The more avenues you use to put information into the brain, the more avenues they have to retrieve it” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008b).

Within my classroom, eighth grade United States social studies, each content curriculum is covered in various modalities in order to reach all learners; homework, study guides, class work, lesson lectures and structured group projects all support the unique styles of learning for each individual student.  All curriculum is previewed by the student through interactive bookwork, cleverly designed projects, and/or self developed worksheets.  Topics are reinforced in class through teacher guided lectures with varied note taking tasks, student lead discussions, and cooperative group projects.  Review sessions and long term research projects help students connect recent subject matter with prior curriculum.  Lastly personally developed graphic organizers depict the common thread throughout the entire year’s themes.  Within this system, I have developed a scaffold and systematic approach to encouraging and teaching students to learn and study independently, a life-long learning tool, which incorporates various modalities of study guides, review sessions, and tests.   Proudly, and with careful attention to detail, all varieties of learning theories are addressed within my classroom.

Technological Integrations: Short Term

After dissecting the prominent learning theories and putting them into practice in correlation with technological tools it was apparent that immediate changes needed to be made to my classroom.  Within the next trimester I look forward to utilizing Voice Thread and virtual fieldtrips in order to put social learning into practice and to make learning real.

Social learning theories address the function of culture, collaboration, and context in students’ knowledge construction and assimilation of the world; social learning is the primary way students construct meaning.  Cooperative learning “focuses on having students interact with each other in groups in ways that enhance their learning” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, 2007, p139).  According to Orey, social learning is built upon three major components: a students’ zone of proximal development, collaborative learning opportunities with more knowledgeable others, and situated cognition (Laureate Education, 2010g).  Voice Thread allows students to discuss topics in a non-threatening environment, collaborate with their peers to solve problems, and to utilize technology.  Virtual fieldtrips allow students to experience learning personally, put concepts into context, and allow students to learn collectively all of which support social learning theories.

Technological Integrations: Long Term

            My technological long term goals include obtaining enough digital video recording devices that every pair of students in my class can work to create a personal video at the same time.  These videos can be modified and edited in order to be uploaded to Voice Thread or Blog Spaces for student collaboration.  In order to do this I have submitted several applications for grants within my district, posted a request on DonorsChoose.org, and have solicited assistance from my students’ parents.  Working in a very affluent community makes my aspirations realistic, and I look forward to having a class set before the end of this academic school year.

            My second long term goal is to bring technological advancements to my school site.  I will begin my having all of our digital projectors mounted on the ceiling, obtaining digital overheads for all classrooms, getting Smartboards for every classroom that wants it and updating all teacher’s desktop computers with the latest software and technology capabilities.  I am currently working with the district technology team, our school site PTA and Booster club, and my principal to write grants for this feat.  I look forward to making technological advancements over the next five years.

Unique Students, Unique Learning Styles

“Each learner in a classroom is likely to have a unique cognitive style, a unique learning style, and some parameters related to intelligence” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p19).  Regardless of how you approach teaching, or your pedagogy that determines why you do so, the best teachers are those who have a pedagogy and reinforce their beliefs within their lessons.  After completing this class, many of my teaching practices have been reinforced, restructured and elaborated upon.  I look forward to obtaining my goals and bringing both my classroom and school site into the twenty first century.

References

Derry, S. J. (1999). A Fish called peer learning: Searching for common themes. In A. M. O'Donnell & A. King (Eds.),

Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.

Iiyoshi, T., Hannifin, M. J., & Wang, F. (2005). Cognitive tools and student-centered learning:Rethinking tools, functions, and applications. Educational Media International, 42, 281-296. Retrieved February 19, 2007.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008a). Program #: Brain research and learning with Patricia Wolfe. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008b). Program #: Understanding the brain with Patricia Wolfe. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008c). Program #: Instructional theory versus learning theory with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010d). Program #: Behaviorist learning theory with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010e). Program #: Cognitive Learning Theories with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010f). Program #: Constructionist and Constructivist Learning Theories with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010g). Program #: Social learning theories with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Baltimore: Author.

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.  Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://sylvan.live.ecollege.com/ec/courses/53036/CRS-CW-4603750/Ch1_Excerpt.pdf.

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved November 7, 2010 from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm.

Thornburg, D. (2004). Technology and education: Expectations, not options. (Executive Briefing No. 401). Retrieved from http://www.tcpdpodcast.org/briefings/expectations.pdf

Social and Cooperative Learning

Social Learning Defined

            Social learning theories address the function of culture, collaboration, and context in students’ knowledge construction and assimilation of the world; social learning is the primary way students construct meaning.  Cooperative learning “focuses on having students interact with each other in groups in ways that enhance their learning” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, 2007, p139).  According to Orey, social learning is built upon three major components: a students’ zone of proximal development, collaborative learning opportunities with more knowledgeable others, and situated cognition (Laureate Education, 2010g).

The zone of proximal development identifies the learning ability frames of a student: what they already know, what they are able to master, and what they are unable to learn without support and guidance (Laureate Education, 2010g).  Identifying a student’s zone of proximal development allows teachers to generate lessons that encourage students to flourish.

            Collaborative learning opportunities, or cooperative learning, provide students with possibilities to “confirm and validate thoughts and receive encouragement” (Laureate Education, 2010g), both of which embolden student’s confidence and subsequently motivate students to continue learning.

            Orey continues his argument for social learning by postulating “context and cultures are critical in constructing knowledge and understanding of the world around us” (Laureate Education, 2010g).  This is supported by the teaching stratagem of situated cognition, which posits that teachers need to contextualize concepts within a real world situation in order to make knowledge applicable and able to be articulated.

Instructional Strategy: Student Created Multimedia

            Student created multimedia projects include movie making, blog creations, podcast developments, and website construction.  Students created multimedia projects follow all three major components of social learning.  Many of the tasks associated with creating multimedia projects are naturally conducive to cooperative learning opportunities and subsequently social learning prospects.  There is a fine attention to detail within creating multimedia projects that allow for various tasks to be divided between team members and adapt to individual zones of proximal development.  Additionally while working together students receive immediate feedback from each other and are able to gain confidence and motivation to continue learning.  Most importantly with students created media is the application to real life as this is technology that are students are already manipulating during their free time and technology that they will advance during their future careers.

Instructional Strategy: Web Enabled Cooperative Learning

            With advancements in technology and available resources at schools it is now easier than ever to provide students with opportunities to collaborate through the web with “other students in school, subject experts, and multi-user game players” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, 2007, p144).  There is an abundance of Web 2.0 tools that address cooperative learning including: collaborative organizing, simulation games, and much more.  Web enabled cooperative learning refers to the thriving medium the world wide web has become for collaboration in business, education, and personal lives.  This addresses the three major components of social learning in that students are able to work at their own pace, contribute at their own levels, receive immediate feedback and confirmation, and is clearly applicable to real word situations.

Instructional Strategy: Communication Software

            New technology’s greatest strength is its ability to overcome constraints of time or geography.  Tools such as blogs, wikis, video chats, email, and online shared documents provide students with opportunities to create across continents and time zones.  This addresses the three major components of social learning for many of the same reasons as the previous instructional strategies.  The greatest gift to students is their ability to work at their own pace during the collaboration process.

Connectivism and Social Learning in Practice

By adopting social learning instructional practices and integrating technology tools that support and facilitate such practices, classrooms would be able to provide more effective learning opportunities for students by actively engaging students in constructing artifacts while conversing with one another.  Through discussions, concepts are made concrete and learning is solidified (Laureate Education, 2010g).

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010g). Program #: Social learning theories with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology. Baltimore: Author.

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

VoiceThread: Volunteers Wanted

Participate in the discussion today!

http://voicethread.com/share/1524672/

Constructionism in Practice

Constructionism in Practice

Principles of both constructivism and constructionism parallel each other.

Constructionism is based around the idea of equilibration.  Equilibration is “the process of achieving a balance between differences in external reality and one’s current beliefs and understandings” (Laureate Education, 2010f). Here in out schema is defined as one’s current beliefs and understandings.  Equilibration is sought through the two mechanisms for learning: assimilation and accommodation.  According to Orey, assimilation “occurs when external reality is made to fit within one’s schema” (Laureate Education, 2010f).  Conversely, accommodation “occurs when one’s schema is altered to fit the external reality” (Laureate Education, 2010f).  In practice, the constructionist approach is a theory of learning that postulates that “people learn best when they build an external artifact or something they can share with others” (Laureate Education, 2010f).  Constructionism encourages students to build upon what they already understand and are able to share with one another within the learning process.

Generating and Testing Hypotheses

The teaching strategy of generating and testing hypotheses is applicable to all subject areas in its alignment with both constrivist and construtionist learning theories.  According to Orey, “when students generate and test hypotheses, they are engaging in complex mental processes, applying content knowledge like facts and vocabulary, and enhancing their overall understanding of the content” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p202).  The six activities that students must accomplish in order to generate and test hypotheses are: (1) systems analysis, (2) problem solving, (3) historical investigations, (4) invention, (5) experimental inquiry, and (6) decision making (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p203). 

Each of these six tasks align with constructionism theories as they build upon each other in ascending understanding of concepts.  The constructionist approach is a theory of learning that postulates that “people learn best when they build an external artifact or something they can share with others” (Laureate Education, 2010f).  Constructionism encourages students to build upon what they already understand. 

Additionally, by accomplishing each of these outlined steps students are always in equilibration as their schema is developed and supported.  In this technologically unbridled world, it is imperative that teachers understand how “technology plays a vital role in generating and testing hypothesis because new developments in probeware and interactive applets allow students to spend more time interpreting the data rather than gathering the data”(Pittler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, 2007, p203).  This is an essential aspect of constructionism: analysis over collection.

References

Derry, S. J. (1999). A Fish called peer learning: Searching for common themes. In A. M. O'Donnell & A. King (Eds.),

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010f). Program #: Constructionist and Constructivist Learning Theories with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Cognitivism in Practice

Cues, questions, advance organizers, summarizing, and note taking are profound examples of cognitive learning theories in practice within the classroom.  Cognitive learning theory is summarized by Orey through the process of sensory registers input of information s into short term or working memory, which then gets stored into long term memory through practices of rehearsal and elaboration(Laureate Education, 2010e).  The main components of cognitive learning theories require that teachers: (1) integrate multiple senses, (2) understand the limits of information a student can attend to at one time, and (3) practice elaboration with the learning process.

Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

The instructional strategy of cues, questions, and advance organizers, “focuses on enhancing students’ ability to retrieve, use, and organize information about a topic” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn & Malenoski, 2007).  All three address the main components of cognitive learning theories.

Cues include the suggestions teachers utilize to assist students in arriving at the desired responses, approaches or conclusions. Cues observe the practice of elaboration in teaching students how to connect prior knowledge with newly learned notions.  Furthermore, depending on the type of cue a teacher provides, cues can integrate multiple senses within the learning process.  For example, a teacher can make a sound, release a scent, move their body in a particular fashion, or draw a picture in order to prompt a student.

Questions are used by both teacher and students to evaluate a student’s understanding of material.  Interrogations elicit the practice of short term or long term memory retrieval through elaboration.  Students perform the mental action of relating associations or connections with prior knowledge and learned information.  If a student answers the question incorrectly or insufficiently an instructor now has a better understanding of the students limit of information and can reteach the concept or continue the process of elaboration in order to cement the learning to long term memory.

Advance organizers, such as graphic organizers and concept maps, “enable information to be presented in meaningful and appropriate representations” (Orey, 2001); they assist students in interacting with information and concepts in order to “acquire, synthesize, create, and share new knowledge” (Orey, 2001).  In interacting with information students are chunking ideas in order to expand the limits they have on the amount of information they can attend to at one time.  Additionally, advance organizers provide exceptional elaboration practices that link and connect the relationships concepts have with each other.

Summarizing and Note Taking

“The instructional strategies of summarizing and note taking focus on enhancing students’ ability to synthesize information and distill it into a concise new form. Teachers work on helping students separate important information from extraneous information and state the information in their own word” (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn & Malenoski, 2007).  There are many different approaches to summarizing and note taking, however in order to be most effectively implemented close attention needs to be paid to the main components of the cognitive learning theory.

First and foremost students need to understand the basic principles that underlie how to summarize; this includes understanding and being able to distinguish between main ideas and supporting details.  Summarizing practices cognitive learning theory in that it allows students to link the main idea of the lesson to previous activities and lessons which subsequently provides a better understanding of the relationship between concepts.  It also acts as a chunking mechanism, thus increasing the amount of information that can be attended to.

Learning to summarize supports efficient note taking practices.  Varying note taking practices encourages students to stay focused and self motivated to learn new concepts and material – it also helps to address all aspects of the complexities of the cognitive learning theory.  Note taking can address multiple senses, if done accurately, which improves learning.  It also encourages rehearsal as students are able to refer back to their notes in order to cement learning.

Elaboration

In order to effectively address cognitive learning theories teachers must pay close attention to the role that elaboration plays within their classroom.  Relating prior knowledge to novice notions and concepts supports the theory that long term memories are stored in networks of information that can be easily retrieved through the understanding of how these networks are connected and related.  Components such as multiple sensory learning and limited learning capacities reinforce the utilization and efficacy of elaboration within cognitive learning theories and within the classroom.

References

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010e). Program #: Cognitive Learning Theories with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Concept Mapping Virtual Fieldtrips

Virtual Fieldtrip Link

The Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, Initials. (Producer). (2010). Tour the town: the colonial williamsburg offical history site. [Web]. Retrieved November 14, 2010 from http://www.history.org/Almanack/tourTheTown/.

Concept Map Link

Wanmer, M. (2010, November 12). Daily life in colonial williamsburg concept map. Retrieved November 14, 2010from http://www.mywebspiration.com/view/642200a42c9.

Reflection

The concept map I chose to maximize my students’ experiences in Colonial Williamsburg (via a virtual fieldtrip) is a spider map; a concept map is a diagram that shows the relationships between notions.  Within the map a main concept centered around five subtopics.  Three of the subtopics involved observations throughout the fieldtrip and the remaining two required students to analyze experiences and provided scaffolding for the following written assignment.  After a guided tour of Colonial Williamsburg, students were given time to autonomously explore the area.  Students were then put into small groups and given access to the digital concept map wherein they worked collaboratively to fill in the concept map though discussion, exploration, sharing and debate.  At the close of the period all concept maps were published and presented.

Working with students to complete the map was much easier than I thought it would be.  Students were able to go back and add new information to the concept map as they encountered new buildings and artifacts during the virtual fieldtrip and they were not limited to space constrictions or neatness expectations.  With other questions and answer assignments, once a student finishes a question they move on – there is rarely a revisit to edit or revise an answer.  Conversely, with a concept map all “questions” are never really finished and students are able to add as much detail as they want.  This allows students to compare and contrast topics while scrutinizing sources and evaluating responses.  Additionally, nothing written in the concept map is permanent.  Students were able to continually manipulate verbiage, placement, and classification.  This was very helpful to my perfectionist students who often avoid concept maps because of their common disorderly appearance and rigidity.  It also halped my more unorganized thinking students to clearly present their knowledge in a systematic manner, subsequently learning how to be better methodical in their work.

In a world where technology is continuously being upgraded it is imperative that teachers evolve and learn to use these changes to not simply do the same things differently but to do different things.  As Thornburg delineates, “we live in a world where it is commonplace for technology to be used to do different things, not just do old tasks differently” (Thornburg, 2004, p. 3). Technology today provides educators with a variety of different teaching tools that allow them to transform education in ways unfathomable only twenty years ago.  Cognitive tools have several roles: they “allow students to interact with information in order to acquire, synthesize, create, and share new knowledge” (Orey, 2001).   Concept maps and graphic organizers similar to the one used in this lesson “enable information to be presented in meaningful and appropriate representations” (Orey, 2001).  According to Orey, “presenting information involves the organization, format, and verbalization of knowledge conveyed through cognitive tools” (Orey, 2001). Careful attention will be paid to selecting relevant content, selecting information that enhances decisions and interpretations, and representing content and relationships in different forms (Iiyoshi et al, 2005).

Every year I have had students write a letter to a friend describing life in colonial America.  Previously I have shown a video about colonial life and then consigned the writing assignment; but this year, through the implementation of the concept map and virtual fieldtrip, I have been able to better scaffold how to relay experiences in a letter in order to better highlight understanding and analysis of experiences.

References

Iiyoshi, T., Hannifin, M. J., & Wang, F. (2005). Cognitive tools and student-centered learning:Rethinking tools, functions, and applications. Educational Media International, 42, 281-296. Retrieved February 19, 2007.

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.

Thornburg, D. (2004). Technology and education: Expectations, not options. (Executive Briefing No. 401). Retrieved from http://www.tcpdpodcast.org/briefings/expectations.pdf

Behaviorism in Practice

“Behaviorist techniques have long been employed in education to promote behavior that is desirable and discourage that which is not; among the methods derived from behaviorist theory for practical classroom application are contracts, consequences, reinforcement, extinction, and behavior modification” (Orey, 2001).    Several strategies proposed within this week’s readings correlate with the principles of behaviorist learning theory. 

Basic Behaviorist Principles

According to Hartley, four key principles outline behaviorist models: (1) students must actively participate in the learning process, (2) repetition, generalization and discrimination play prominent roles, (3) reinforcement motivates students, and (4) clear objectives and expectations assist students within the learning process (Hartley, 1998).  Effective incorporation of these principles yields an effectual instructional strategy.

Tutorial Strategies

One successful way behaviorism presents itself within the classroom is through tutorials.  Tutorial strategies present a small amount of information and subsequently “asks a guiding question that gets the learner to have a behavior and make a decision about what the right answer is” (Laureate Education, 2010d) wherein the system then says whether the behavior is correct or incorrect.  This strategy requires that students actively participate consequently setting clear learning objectives for student knowledge and providing positive reinforcement for affirmative behaviors.  Additionally, repetition and variance can be effortlessly included within the tutorial strategy.

Homework Review and Practice

McREL’s research on practice supports that “mastering a skill or process requires a fair amount of focused practice” (Pitler, Hubbel, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p188).  Homework that is designed to clearly articulate purpose and outcome as well as varies approaches to providing feedback, (Pitler, Hubbel, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p188) provides students with such opportunities to practice subject matter and reinforce learning objectives.  “Having students practice a skill or concept enhances their ability to reach the expected level of proficiency” (Pitler, Hubbel, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p187).  High-quality homework activities follow all four key behaviorist principles, however not all homework activities are high quality.  In order to be successful as acceptable by behaviorist standards, homework needs to connect prior knowledge to newly taught concepts; include meaningful practice of application of new concepts through repetition, generalization, and discrimination; and intrinsically motivate students.

Reinforcing Effort

A student’s effort plays a prominent role in their academic achievement; “research shows that the level of belief in self-efficacy plays a strong role in motivation of learning and achievement” (Pitler, Hubbel, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007, p155).  The instructional approach of emphasizing effort improves students’ understanding of the relationship between effort and academic achievement by addressing their attitudes and convictions about learning.  This strategy coincides with behaviorist thinking because it reinforces the active role that students must play within the learning process and it rewards students endeavors and exertions which fundamentally motivates them.

Adapting

Regardless of what stratagem or approach you utilize within your classroom, adaption of behaviorist principles strengthens your instructional strategy.   “According to the behaviorists, the learner acquires behaviors, skills, and knowledge in response to the rewards, punishments, or withheld responses associated with them (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p14). 

References

Hartley, J. (1998) Learning and Studying. A research perspective, London: Routledge.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2010d). Program #: Behaviorist learning theory with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.  Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://sylvan.live.ecollege.com/ec/courses/53036/CRS-CW-4603750/Ch1_Excerpt.pdf.

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.

Smith, K. (1999). The behaviourist orientation to learning. In The encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved November 7, 2010 from http://www.infed.org/biblio/learning-behavourist.htm.

Connecting Brain Function and Theories of Learning with Technology

Discernment in regards to how the brain learns facilitates you to employ teaching strategies that exploit the brain’s natural abilities and consequently maximizes scholarly learning (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008a).  Contemporary developments and advancements in technology have now made it viable to examine the brain in action and scrutinize how and where information is manipulated during the learning process.  Juxtaposed with theories of learning and intelligences, support for the use of educational technology in order to facilitate and enhance student learning is cultivated.

“Learning is a complex activity that can be explained differently depending on one’s perspective on how and why people do what they do…each of the different schools of psychology has its own view or perspective of learning” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p11).   Beyond these differences, however all factions agree that “environmental factors, psychological factors, and personal filters are among the many variables that affect learning”  (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p12).  In order to better appreciate the learning process, one must scrutinize the corporeal facets and processes that occur within the brain during learning.  Teachers teach the cortex of the brain, or the quarter inch thick layer that covers your brain and its folds; “the cortex is the part of the brain wherein lies consciousness, your ability to be aware of what you are thinking” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008a).  There are four major lobes, or parts of the cortex, that handle different aspects a human being functionalities: the occipital lobes controls vision, the temporal lobes handles hearing and allows you to hear, the frontal lobes are responsible for higher level thinking, and the parietal lobes facilitates the integration of sensory data (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008a).  Each lobe of the brain is made up of cells that have neurons. Neurons have dendrites that receive information from other cells and an axon that sends electrical impulses to axon branches, which releases chemicals called neurotransmitters during synapses.  According to Wolfe, learning is the making and strengthening connections between thousands of these neurons within the brain (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008a).  Conversely, “memory is the ability to reactivate a connection made earlier, but if you did not make a good connection, then you will not be able to remember it” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008a).  Wolfe elaborates more on the topic to illustrate that “the more you activate a connection, the more you increase the potential of that connection, and subsequently effectiveness, to fire again.  So when you teach something to children and have them practice it in various modalities and times, the stronger the synapse becomes and the stronger the memory becomes” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008a).

The brain is sculpted through experience called neuroplasticity.  Wolfe argues that teachers “are not just teaching children, [they] are literally and physically shaping their brains by what [they] have them do (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008b).  During the learning process, the brain seeks meaningful patterns;  therefore, the only way to really understand something is to relate it to prior knowledge or creating hands-on, concrete learning experiences that involve the five senses.  “The more avenues you use to put information into the brain, the more avenues they have to retrieve it” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008b).  Additionally, there are two types of memory: procedural and declarative.  Memory is a process that the brain goes through to store and subsequently retrieve information (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008b).  Procedural memory remembers unconscious processes wherein declarative memory remembers episodes and concepts.  Procedural memory requires rote rehearsal and repetition to develop, in opposition declarative memory necessitates elaborative rehearsal.  Effective implementation of technology provides both teachers and students with opportunities for both modalities of memory reinforcement.

Orey outlines that “understanding the theoretical base supporting teaching and learning can help [educators] make appropriate and successful instructional decisions for [their] students” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008c).  Instructional theories examines strategies for changing the learning environment to facilitate learning and although they all have “different perspectives about engaging learners” (Laureate Education, Inc, 2008c) their commonalities necessitate active learners and participants.  

There are  essentially four branches of learning theory: Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism, and Social Constructivism.  Behaviorists view all behavior as a response to external stimuli.  A stimuli is the initial action directed to the organism, and a response is the organism’s reaction to that action.  “According to the behaviorists, the learner acquires behaviors, skills, and knowledge in response to the rewards, punishments, or withheld responses associated with them” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p14).  Additionally, “learning is essentially a passive process, that is, one learns as a response to the environment, not necessarily because of any specific mental activity” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p14).  Cognitivists focus on “learning as a mental operation that takes place when information enters through the senses, undergoes mental manipulation, is stored and is finally used…Although behavior is still considered critical, it is viewed as an indicator of cognitive processes rather than just an outcome of a stimulus-response cycle” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p15).   “Learning and problem solving, according to cognitivists, represent metal processes that are undetectable in mere observation” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p15).  For constructivists, “knowledge is a constructed element resulting from the learning process.  Further, knowledge is unique to the individual who constructs it…learning is a unique product for each individual based on the experiences within which those mental processes occurs” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p15).  Piaget, a noted constructivist, theorized that children construct mental maps as they encounter information.  “New knowledge is either assimilated (fitted into existing maps) or accommodated (existing maps are adjusted to accommodate the new information).  Thus, children maintain a type of mental equilibrium” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p16).

Conversely, the National Association of Secondary School Principals defines learning style as, "the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning environment." (Orey, 2001).  Or in other words, the conditions under which students learn best.  Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but culture, experience, and development influence these preferences. The four most common learning styles are visual, aural, reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. According to Orey, “most people learn through all modalities, but have certain strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality” (Orey, 2001).

The definition of educational technology often varies depending on who is utlizing the term.  The Associate for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT), defines it as the “theory and practice of design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes and resources for learning” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p4).  In order to use technology effectively, the teacher must have a clear understanding of learning and the teaching strategies that will result in the intended knowledge transfer. “The teaching strategies [teachers] select will then determine the appropriate types of technological tools necessary to carry them out” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p10). 

There are many reasons why a teacher of student might chose to utilize one of the various modalities of  technology as a means of learning, teaching, or reinforcing knowledge.    “A teacher might employ a particular process or a specific technology to increase the likelihood that a presentation addresses a specific learning style or intelligence” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p27).  This might include: incorporating graphics, audio and video files within PowerPoint; exploiting a microscope mini-activity; or requiring students research the topic independently before lecturing.  “A teacher might use educational technology to enhance the quality and clarity of communication” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p27).  While there are ample possibilities for clarifying communication using technology this could be as simple as providing students with interactive note organizers within a word document that they manipulate during lectures,  presentations, or independent readings.  ”Some educational technologies can be employed to ensure the rewards and feedback that are critical to a behaviorist approach” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p27).  There are many popular educational games that employ this effective approach to educational technology: students work to earn points that are later used to unlock higher levels of the game.  Additionally, a “leaner might select a process or technology because it organizes and presents content in the manner that is most comfortable for his or her personal cognitive style” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p27).   Lastly, ‘other technologies encourage and support social exchange to construct new knowledge through cooperative interaction” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p27).  It is through this last modality, which included blogs and wikis, that many teachers lack courage and wherewithal to incorporate within their classrooms but is on the rise.

“Each learner in a classroom is likely to have a unique cognitive style, a unique learning style, and some parameters related to intelligence” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p19).  According to Lever-Duffy and McDonald, “to be effectively used, educational technology should not be segregated from the teaching and learning that it supports” (Lever-Duffy & McDonald, 2008, p2).   Juxtaposition of the theories of learning and intelligences and the physiological understanding of how the brain functions, supports the use of educational technology in order to facilitate and enhance student learning is cultivated.

Resources

Lever-Duffy, J., & McDonald, J. (2008). Theoretical foundations (Laureate Education, Inc., custom ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.  Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://sylvan.live.ecollege.com/ec/courses/53036/CRS-CW-4603750/Ch1_Excerpt.pdf.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008a). Program #: Brain Research and Learning with Patricia Wolfe. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008b). Program #: Understanding the Brain with Patricia Wolfe. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2008c). Program #: Instructional theory versus Learning Theory with Michael Orey. [DVD]. In Walden University: Bridging Learning Theory, Instruction, and Technology.  Baltimore: Author.

Orey, M. (Ed.). (2001). Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved October 30, 2010 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php?title=Main_Page.